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sovereignty
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6.1 Review the concepts of nation, state and nation-state.
6.2 Outline the attempts by Spain to limit the activities of the British settlers through the treaties, military and other actions up to 1821.
the spanish empire in the americas
In the decades after 1492, Spain established settlements in much of Latin America. By 1600, at least 250,000 Spaniards had settled in these Spanish territories.
Although huge numbers of indigenous peoples died as a result of epidemics and violence in the years between 1492 and 1550, many indigenous communities survived.
Spain established governments in its colonies, including the Viceroyalties of New Spain, New Grenada and New Peru. Mexico, Belize and most of the rest of Central America were part of New Spain.
Although huge numbers of indigenous peoples died as a result of epidemics and violence in the years between 1492 and 1550, many indigenous communities survived.
Spain established governments in its colonies, including the Viceroyalties of New Spain, New Grenada and New Peru. Mexico, Belize and most of the rest of Central America were part of New Spain.
the captaincy generalS of guatemala and The YUCATAN
After 1609, the Central American territories of the Spanish Empire were administered by the Captaincy General of Guatemala with its capital at Antigua. The Captaincy General was part of the Vice-Royalty of New Spain.
The Captaincy General of the Yucatan was created in 1617. Its capital was Merida. It was also part of New Spain.
It is likely that, as far as Spain was concerned, the territory of Belize was part of the Captaincy General of the Yucatan and not Guatemala. This has been disputed.
spanish activity in belize before 1700
This topic can was covered in the Origins Unit. Click to review.
The following is an extract from the book "Colonialism and Resistance in Belize" by O. Nigel Bolland.
“The Spaniards, who had such a devastating effect on the population and social organization of Mesoamerican societies, showed little interest in the area now known as Belize and never seemed to have considered the area suitable for settlement. Nevertheless in a number of entradas (military expedititions, often with the aim of converting people to Christianity) during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries they encountered Mayas in various places of what is now Belize. In the early 1530s Davila (a Spanish military leader) was sent to establish a base at ancient Chetumal which was the capital of a Maya province that stretched from Bacalar to the New River Lagoon. . . In 1618 Father Bartomole de Fuensalida traveled up the New River until he reached Tipu, a large Maya settlement on the Belize River”
“The Spaniards, who had such a devastating effect on the population and social organization of Mesoamerican societies, showed little interest in the area now known as Belize and never seemed to have considered the area suitable for settlement. Nevertheless in a number of entradas (military expedititions, often with the aim of converting people to Christianity) during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries they encountered Mayas in various places of what is now Belize. In the early 1530s Davila (a Spanish military leader) was sent to establish a base at ancient Chetumal which was the capital of a Maya province that stretched from Bacalar to the New River Lagoon. . . In 1618 Father Bartomole de Fuensalida traveled up the New River until he reached Tipu, a large Maya settlement on the Belize River”
A Spanish document from 1582 lists Spanish religious missions in Belize (Memoria de los conventos y pueblos de Bacalar. 1582)
british activity in the yucatan and central america in the 1600s
In 1655, Britain captured Jamaica from Spain. This led to increased attacks on Spanish possessions by British Buccaneers (pirates). At about the same time, some Britons began to cut logwood in the Bay of Campeche in southern Mexico. By around 1670 there were also some British logwood cutters in Belize and Honduras.
the spanish response to british actvities in the yucatan and central america
Spain was opposed to any British settlement on the mainland of Latin America.
In 1717 Spain expelled British logwood cutters from the Bay of Campeche west of the Yucatán. This action had the unintended effect of encouraging the logwood cutters to move to the growing British settlement near the Belize River. During the eighteenth century, the Spanish attacked the British settlers in Belize repeatedly. In 1717, 1730, 1754, and 1779 the Spanish forced the British to leave the Belize area. However, the Spanish did not make any attempt to build their own towns in Belize and the British always returned to expand their activities. The final Spanish attack on Belize was the Battle of St. George's Caye in 1798.
In 1717 Spain expelled British logwood cutters from the Bay of Campeche west of the Yucatán. This action had the unintended effect of encouraging the logwood cutters to move to the growing British settlement near the Belize River. During the eighteenth century, the Spanish attacked the British settlers in Belize repeatedly. In 1717, 1730, 1754, and 1779 the Spanish forced the British to leave the Belize area. However, the Spanish did not make any attempt to build their own towns in Belize and the British always returned to expand their activities. The final Spanish attack on Belize was the Battle of St. George's Caye in 1798.
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HONDURAS Honduras was a Spanish colony. However, Spain did not fully control the northern coastal region. This made it an attractive base for British pirates and logwood cutters. The British had a strong presence in Honduras until almost 1786. A major problem for Spanish rulers of Honduras was the activity of the English pirates along the northern Caribbean coast. In 1643 one English expedition destroyed the town of Trujillo, the major port for Honduras, leaving it virtually abandoned for over a century. English settlements along the Caribbean coast and the Islas de la Bahía threatened to cut Spanish Honduras off from the Caribbean and raised the possibility of the loss of much of its territory. The Spanish government made several efforts to regain control over the Caribbean coast. In 1752 a major fort was constructed at San Fernando de Omoa near the Guatemalan border. During the 1780s, the Spanish drove the majority of the British and their allies out of the area and the British fully recognized Spanish sovereignty over the area in 1786. English activities on the Honduran coast was heavily dependent on the support of groups known as the Sambo and the Miskito, (peoples of native American and African ancestry) who were usually more than willing to attack Spanish settlements. (Based on http://countrystudies.us/honduras/11.htm) MOST OF THE INHABITANTS OF HONDURAS IN 1786 MOVED TO BELIZE CITY. |
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treaties between britain and spain
Between 1500 and 1815, there were many wars between European countries. Although the most important fighting was usually in Europe itself, there was also fighting in North America and the Caribbean. Usually, each war finished with a peace treaty. These treaties were agreements between the countries that fought the war. They often had sections related to the Caribbean.
During the Anglo-Spanish War (1654-1660) England took control of Jamaica and the Cayman Islands. Spain recognized English sovereignty over these islands in the Treaty of Madrid (1670). This treaty did not mention British activities in the Bay of Campeche, Honduras or Belize.
TREATY OF PARIS (1763), THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES (1783) and the CONVENTION OF LONDON (1786)
Britain and Spain signed the Treaty of Paris at the end of the Seven Years War (1756-1763). Under this treaty, Spain gave permission for British logwood cutters to live and operate in the area. After further warfare between the two countries, the Treaty of Versailles was signed in 1783. This treaty defined the area of British activity as between the Belize River and the Rio Hondo. The Treaty of Versailles said that the British were not allowed to erect fortifications or engage in agriculture. It is clear that Spain is still considered to have sovereignty over the area.
It is clear from these treaties that Spain was still regarded as having sovereignty over Belize. This is made absolutely clear in the 1786 Convention of London in which Britain agreed that all of Central America belonged to Spain. Britain also agreed that Spanish commissioners could conduct inspection visits to Belize. As a result of the 1786 Convention of London, British subjects were evacuated from Northern Honduras and most moved to Belize, with their slaves. At the same time, Spain agreed that the British could extract mahogany as well as logwood from the area between the Rio Hondo and the Sibun. Agriculture and the construction of fortifications continued to be forbidden.
During the Anglo-Spanish War (1654-1660) England took control of Jamaica and the Cayman Islands. Spain recognized English sovereignty over these islands in the Treaty of Madrid (1670). This treaty did not mention British activities in the Bay of Campeche, Honduras or Belize.
TREATY OF PARIS (1763), THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES (1783) and the CONVENTION OF LONDON (1786)
Britain and Spain signed the Treaty of Paris at the end of the Seven Years War (1756-1763). Under this treaty, Spain gave permission for British logwood cutters to live and operate in the area. After further warfare between the two countries, the Treaty of Versailles was signed in 1783. This treaty defined the area of British activity as between the Belize River and the Rio Hondo. The Treaty of Versailles said that the British were not allowed to erect fortifications or engage in agriculture. It is clear that Spain is still considered to have sovereignty over the area.
It is clear from these treaties that Spain was still regarded as having sovereignty over Belize. This is made absolutely clear in the 1786 Convention of London in which Britain agreed that all of Central America belonged to Spain. Britain also agreed that Spanish commissioners could conduct inspection visits to Belize. As a result of the 1786 Convention of London, British subjects were evacuated from Northern Honduras and most moved to Belize, with their slaves. At the same time, Spain agreed that the British could extract mahogany as well as logwood from the area between the Rio Hondo and the Sibun. Agriculture and the construction of fortifications continued to be forbidden.
the battle of st george's caye
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In 1795, Spain made an alliance with France with the aim of attacking Britain. This led to the Anglo-Spanish War, which lasted from 1796 to 1802. In September 1798. Spain made an attempt capture the British settlements in the Bay of Honduras (Belize). A Spanish fleet ships approached Belize on the 3rd September 1798. At that time, the main British settlement was on St George’s Caye and capturing this island was the first Spanish aim.
The Spanish fleet had a total of 32 vessels, of which 14 were large warships. They also had a large number of soldiers on board, indicating their intention of permanently taking over the area. The British had five reasonably sized gun-boats, eight flat gun boats and a large number of canoes and dories. Crucially, the British force was strengthened by a large British warship called HMS Merlin. The British defenders included the professional soldiers of the British West India Regiment, as well as the local militia. The Spanish tried to reach St. George’s Caye on the 5th and 6th of September but on each occasion they were blocked by HMS Merlin and the British gun boats. The British were afraid that the Spanish would try to land at Haulover, near Belize City, so they reinforced their defences with additional men and heavy guns. The main Spanish attack happened in the afternoon of 10th September when nine of the largest Spanish warships approached the main channel by St. George’s Caye, with five other vessels in reserve. The battle lasted for about two and a half hours. In the middle of the battle, the British launched a large number of small boats towards the Spanish fleet, although they did not reach it because at this time the Spanish ended their attack and retreated. The Spanish did not return and this was the last ever attempt by Spain to take the Bay of Honduras from the British. |
some questions for discussion, research and analysis
Why did the Spanish launch their attack?
Why did the British decide to resist the Spanish attack?
During the 18th Century (1700-1799), Spain had attacked the British settlement several times, sometimes driving them out and someimes taking them prisoner. The most recent attack had been in 1779. However, after each attack the Spanish made not attempt to create a permanent settlement in the area and the British returned.
In June 1797, the Baymen held a vote to decide whether they would stay and fight or leave Belize if the Spanish attacked. This vote was in favour of staying, partly because of the influence of 14 men from Flower's Bank who attended the meeting. Click here to read more on that story.
Some important changes had occurred since 1779. Mahogany had largely replaced logwood as the major forest product of Belize. Mahogany required more investment and a larger number of slaves but it also promised much greater profits. Secondly, after the Convention of London, Belize was the last British possession on mainland Central America. After the Convention, which was signed in 1786, the population of Belize became larger because many British people and their slaves moved there from Honduras. The fact that Belize was also the last remaining British possession made the British more determined to defend it with ships and troops based in Jamaica.
Click here for a comprehensive account of the discussions and preparations of the Baymen.
Why did the Spanish use large ships that were unsuitable for a battle in the shallow waters around the cayes?
It is clear from the large number of soldiers in the ships, that the Spanish were planning an invasion followed by some kind of permanent occupation of the area. The large ships in the fleet may have been intended to block any British attempt to regain the area using warships. It is also probable that the Spanish did not expect much resistance from the Baymen.
Is it correct to call the events a "battle"?
There is no credible evidence that anyone died during the Battle of St. George's Caye. The two sides did not get close enough for any ships to be boarded and there was also probably no hand to hand fighting. However, the event, which lasted several hours, was definitely violent. Both sides fired both large and small guns at their enemy and ships were definitely damaged.
Did slaves take part in the battle?
The British forces definitely included many men of colour. While neither the account by Thomas Barrow, nor the Spanish reports directly mention slaves, they are mentioned, and praised, in a report by Captain Moss, the British commander of HMS Merlin. Furthermore the possibiity of using slaves to defend Haulover Creek was proposed at a public meeting held in June 1798. It is almost certain, therefore, that the flotilla of dories and canoes that attempted to attack the Spanish fleet during the battle included slaves.
the end of the spanish empire in latin america
By 1800, the Spanish government was much weaker than it had been in the preceding centuries. It was consistently under attack from Britain and France. These weaknesses encouraged the people of Latin America to try to win independence in a series of wars. Mexico declared itself independent in 1810, followed by the other countries of Spanish South America. The Central American countries became independent in 1821. Spain did manage to hold on to its territories in the Caribbean until they were defeated in a war against the USA in 1898.
6.3 Outline the main reasons why Spain was unable to exercise effective control over Belize from 1500 to 1800.
Some Factors that Stopped Spain from Controlling Belize
Belize was never that important to Spain. It did not have significant sources of precious metals such as gold and silver and it had few indigenous inhabitants that could be used as plantation labourers.
Belize was distant from the major Spanish cities in the Americas such as Antigua (Guatemala), Mexico City, Lima (Peru), Caracas (Venezuela), Cartagena (Colombia), Granada (Nicaragua) and Panama City.
The inhabitants of Spain and of the Spanish Empire had little interest in settling in Belize because of its relatively hot climate, diseases and lack of resources. The more developed and cooler cities in the highlands of Mexico and Central America were far more attractive.
Spain did not fully control the areas close to Belize. This made it difficult for the Spanish to sustain attacks in the area.
(The Peten region was not conquered until 1697, when it was incorporated into the Captaincy General of Guatemala. Even after 1697, the indigenous inhabitants of Peten resisted Spanish colonial rule. Spanish rule in the Yucatan was effectively restricted to the major towns such as Merida. The Spanish built the fort of Bacalar in 1733 in an attempt to control the local population but they continued to resist. On the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua and Honduras, Spanish rule was challenged by the Miskito and other peoples.)
Spain lost control of the southern Caribbean Sea to the Dutch, British and French. Any attack of Belize from the sea was likely to be resisted by British warships based in Jamaica. In the 1700s, constant wars, in both Europe and the Americas, weakened Spain. Even though it was able to mount attacks on Belize and expel its inhabitants, it did not have the resources to maintain a long term presence. This meant that the British were always able to return.
Belize was distant from the major Spanish cities in the Americas such as Antigua (Guatemala), Mexico City, Lima (Peru), Caracas (Venezuela), Cartagena (Colombia), Granada (Nicaragua) and Panama City.
The inhabitants of Spain and of the Spanish Empire had little interest in settling in Belize because of its relatively hot climate, diseases and lack of resources. The more developed and cooler cities in the highlands of Mexico and Central America were far more attractive.
Spain did not fully control the areas close to Belize. This made it difficult for the Spanish to sustain attacks in the area.
(The Peten region was not conquered until 1697, when it was incorporated into the Captaincy General of Guatemala. Even after 1697, the indigenous inhabitants of Peten resisted Spanish colonial rule. Spanish rule in the Yucatan was effectively restricted to the major towns such as Merida. The Spanish built the fort of Bacalar in 1733 in an attempt to control the local population but they continued to resist. On the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua and Honduras, Spanish rule was challenged by the Miskito and other peoples.)
Spain lost control of the southern Caribbean Sea to the Dutch, British and French. Any attack of Belize from the sea was likely to be resisted by British warships based in Jamaica. In the 1700s, constant wars, in both Europe and the Americas, weakened Spain. Even though it was able to mount attacks on Belize and expel its inhabitants, it did not have the resources to maintain a long term presence. This meant that the British were always able to return.
6.4 Examine the articles of the 1859 Treaty and investigate its significance in defining the southern and western borders of Belize.
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BACKGROUND INFORMATION
When Guatemala became independent from Spain in 1821, Belize was occupied by people of British origin whose main economic activity was exporting mahogany to Europe. This activity was conducted in the area from the Rio Hondo to the Sarstoon River. This area was commonly called the Bay of Honduras but it had not formally been declared a colony of the United Kingdom (Britain). However, the British began appointing superintendents to govern Belize from 1784. Before Latin America became independent in the early 1800s, Spain claimed sovereignty over Belize. This was confirmed in various treaties in the 1700s. Spanish administration of Belize was almost certainly the responsibility of the Captaincy General of the Yucatan, which became part of Mexico. In 1825, Mexico was recognized as a country by the UK and in 1826 Mexico gave up any claim it had to Belize. In the 1850s, the U.S.A. became much more interested in Central America. It tried to get the British to leave Belize, but in 1856, the U.S.A. agreed that Belize was a British territory. (The Dallas-Clarendon Treaty) Following the Dallas-Clarendon Treaty, it became clear that it was necessary to define the border between Belize and Guatemala. Part of the reason for this is that Guatemala was worried that the Belizean woodcutters would begin to operate more and more in the Peten. In 1859, a treaty was signed between Britain and Guatemala defining the border. In 1862, Belize officially became a Crown Colony of the United Kingdom called British Honduras. |
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6.5 Investigate the significance of the 1893 Treaty in defining the northern borders of Belize.
Schedule I of the Belize Constitution states that the Belize-Mexico border is the same as the one defined in the 1893 treaty signed between the governments of Mexico and the United Kingdom (Britain).
This border runs from Boca Bacalar Chico at the north end of Ambergris Caye to the mainland and then along the middle of the Rio Hondo and Blue Creek. The exact wording of the treaty is in the box to the right. |
"Beginning at Boca Bacalar Chica, the strait which separates the State of Yucatan from Ambergris Cay and its dependent isles, the boundary-line runs in the centre of the channel between the above-mentioned cay and the mainland, south-westward as far as the parallel 18º9' north, and then northwest midway between two cays, as marked on the annexed map, as far as the parallel of 18º10' north; then turning to the westward, continues across the adjoining bay first westward to the meridian of 88º2' west, then north to the parallel 18º25' north, again westward to the meridian 88º18' west, and northward along that meridian to latitude 18º28-1/2' north, in which is situated the mouth of the River Hondo, which it follows in its deepest channel, passing west of Albion Island, continuing up Blue Creek until the said creek crosses the meridian of Garbutt's Falls at a point due north of the point where the boundarylines of Mexico, Guatemala, and British Honduras intersect; and from that point it runs due south to latitude 17º49' north, the boundary-line between the Republics of Mexico and Guatemala leaving to the north, in Mexican territory, the so-called River Snosha or Xnohha.
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